Mrs Austin's Class: 03/15/17

LESSON 5 APHI 221 - Understanding Arguments

Mrs AC AUSTIN

Student Tasks:

See the following transcript of this short video below as discussed in class and answer the questions that follow.

(TRANSCRIPT Ep 1.2) –

0:00 Understanding Arguments: identifying key parts and their relationship.

Now that you know that critical thinking requires you to step back and carefully examine claims and arguments logically, we can dig a little deeper into what that means.

As you know, critical thinking allows you to apply reason or logic to evaluate something you read, hear, or see. Most often people use critical thinking to evaluate an argument someone has made.

0:27 By thinking critically about an argument, you can analyse the argument and conclude whether you think it's right or wrong, strong or weak. But before you can analyse something you've heard or read, you must first know whether it's even an argument or not.

0:41 Now this may sound obvious or easy, but as you'll see, that's not always the case. So, what IS an argument? First it's important to recognize that an argument is made to address a specific problem issue, by offering a position on the problem issue and providing reasons for that position.

At its most basic, an argument consists of two parts:

1) one or more premises, and

2) a conclusion.

These two parts must work together in order to offer a particular stance or position on an issue or problem and form an argument. In an argument, the premises supposedly provide the reasons the person has for thinking the conclusion is true.

For example a student tells her instructor, "My grandmother died, and I had to miss class to go to a funeral." The issue or problem at hand is whether the student should be excused from class. Now the student believes the conclusion is YES, and offers a reason - attending her grandmother's funeral - to defend that conclusion.

That reason is the arguments PREMISE. The instructor can then evaluate whether she has offered a good argument or not.

1:54 To "evaluate" means to do two things: first, decide whether the premise or premises are true or accurate; and second, determine whether the premises are logically related to the conclusion. In the future, you learn more about this evaluation process.

2:13 We're going to break down the definition of an argument by focusing on four key points:

1) the premise;

2) the conclusion;

3) the application of reason or logic; and

4) the relationship between premises and conclusions.

2:29 Premises.

When someone makes an argument, they're offering up their position or stance on some issue at hand.

For example, imagine one of your classmates is currently taking a course you were thinking signing up for next semester. When you ask if you should sign up, he says, "Oh no, no way! Do not take BUS 1050!"

In order to convince you that this is true, that you should not take BUS 1050 he'll give you one or more reasons. He might tell you that the professor is boring, or that the readings are too hard, or that there's not enough time for discussion.

The claims about the class are the premises of the argument. They provide the foundation on which the conclusion - that you should not take the class - rests. In order to analyse an argument, one thing you must do is identify the premises. Ask yourself, "what reasons or evidence did this person give for their conclusion?" or, "Why does the author think that this is the answer?"

3:28 Sometimes the person making the argument will make it easier on you by using keywords or phrases that indicator reason: "because", "due to", "as shown by", "given that", and so on. Be aware of such words, but don't rely on them - they won't always appear in an argument. In addition, there are sometimes unstated or implied premises - the person making the argument may leave out a fact or reason, assuming that you already know that fact or that it'll be taken for granted. You will learn more about these unstated premises later. Once you've identified the premises, you will then need to evaluate their truth or strength; we'll talk more about how to do this in later modules.

4:11 Conclusions.

Now let's make sure we're clear on what the conclusion of an argument is. In this context, the term "conclusion" is being used in a different way than you might be familiar with. When we talk about the conclusion of an argument, we do not mean a summary or overall review what's been said (as might be met when your professor asks that your paper include a conclusion paragraph.) Rather the conclusion of an argument is what follows from the claims being made; it is the final statement of the position someone is taking on an issue or question.

Imagine you're having a discussion with your supervisor at work. The supervisor says, "I'm thinking we should have a staff retreat." Now, thinking about how things been around the office, you reply, "Yeah, it seems like some people aren't getting along very well. And we have these really, really important projects that aren't getting done because no one is working on them." You also believe that staff members are not communicating very well with each other.

Having considered a number of premises related to the state have office affairs, you then offer the conclusion that, yes, we should have a staff retreat. Note that your supervisor can then critically examine your argument, evaluating both the premises and the conclusion. He may agree that your premises are true, but that does not mean that he necessarily needs to agree with your conclusion. He may decide that your premises do not provide enough reason for having a staff retreat (and losing time in productivity by taking a day away from regular tasks), or that there's a better way to resolve the office tensions that you've identified.

5:45 Reason.

In making an argument, an individual relies on reason or logic to defend a particular conclusion, rather than on emotion, intuition, or instinct.

For example, an employees who tells his boss, "Please give me a raise. I really need to make more money so I can buy a bigger house." is trying to appeal to his bosses emotions, hoping the boss might feel bad for him. Whether he needs a bigger house or not the employee is not really offering an argument as to why he should get a raise. He simply trying to persuade his boss to agree with his desire.

In order to actually make an argument, the employee could align his workplace accomplishments, projects he has initiated, deadlines he's met, and other concrete reasons that could justify a raise.

6:32 Now consider the defense attorney who, pointing to his clean-cut, well-dressed client asks the jury, "Tell me, does my client look like he's capable of murder?"

Is this an argument? Has the attorney offered the jury any actual reasons by which to draw the conclusion that he would like them to draw - that no of course he's not capable of that? Certainly the person paying the attorney likely hopes he has more to offer the jury by way of reasoned argument and evidence to defend the not-guilty conclusion.

7:05 Relating Premises to Conclusions.

Remember the use of the term "supposedly" in our definition (a premise SUPPOSEDLY provides a reason for thinking the conclusion is true): when someone makes an argument, they believe that the premises they offer justify or support the conclusion they've drawn. However, the point of applying critical thinking to arguments is to evaluate whether that is in fact the case. DOES that premise really lead to the conclusion?

If the argument a good one the answer is going to be YES. If it's a weak argument the answer might be NO.

7:37 Remember when you asked your classmate about taking a certain class? Imagine if instead about telling you what the class was like he says, "Oh no! Do not take that class. I hate that class. It's so early in the morning, and I am not a morning person."

In order to support his conclusion that you should not take the class, the premises are that

a) the class meets early in the morning and

b) he does not like mornings.

Now, did those promises really tell YOU whether YOU should take that class? What does your classmate's dislike of mornings have to do with you?

8:13 So when you analyse an argument you must not only evaluate the premises and conclusions separately, but you need to consider the relationship between them. If the premises do not directly address the question at hand - in this case, should I take this class - then they do not really offer support for whatever conclusion is made, and therefore you have a weak argument.

8:38 The Missing Link: Unstated Assumptions.

Sometimes, it can be difficult to tell whether someone's making an argument -or whether the argument the making is a good one - because pieces of the puzzle are missing. People do not always explain their arguments very well.

Have you ever heard the phrase "it goes without saying"? That "it" is an unstated assumption - a premise that, for some reason, is simply assumed rather than explicitly stated.

9:04 For example, consider the following argument: "It's not required for you to do an internship. You would rather spend your summer at the beach, so don't do an internship."

The unstated assumption here that "goes without saying," is that people should only do what they want to do - you want to spend the summer at the beach, therefore you should do that instead of getting an internship.

9:27 In the example discussed earlier, when the lawyer asked the jury if they really believed his clean-cut, respectable client was capable of murder, he made the unstated assumption that people who LOOK respectable do not commit murder. The problem with unstated assumptions is not that they are (or are not true). The problem is if they remain hidden, then your analysis of an argument is incomplete. Not all unstated assumptions will be true or accurate or reasonable. If you do not bring them out of hiding - by figuring out when some piece of an argument is missing and filling in that gap - then we may miss a weakness or error in reasoning that can undermine the argument's conclusion. If you're the one making the argument, if you leave some premise unstated, someone else may fill in the gap for you, and they may not fill it with the same reason you would have used! In this case you're allowing someone else to make your argument for you - to put words in your mouth that might not belong there. In both assessing and making arguments, you should always be alert to what is not being stated.

Exercise and Test Preparation

1. In your own words describe what is understood by critical thinking?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. An argument consists of two parts – 1 or 2 premises and a conclusion. The premises must work together to provide the reasons or the support for the conclusion. In the following examples – identify which are the premises for which conclusion.

Organise your answers in the form: PREMISE 1., PREMISE 2., CONCLUSION:

For example in the list provided below there are various premises and conclusions all bundled together, choose the relevant premises to match the corresponding conclusion like I have done here for one of them.

Premise 1: (N) {You have a degree in Computer Programming.}

Premise 2: (J) {The Job requisites are that you have a certificate in Computer Literacy}

Conclusion: (R) {You meet the qualifications to apply for the job.}

Here is an alphabetically numbered haphazard list of premise and conclusion statements.

Identify the Premises and Conclusions by indicating the letter (P – [i.e premise] or

C-[i.e conclusion]). at the end of each statement. Finally restore order to the jumbled

mess by arranging these statements in their relevant premise and conclusion form. There

are five remaining “arguments” to be sorted out.

(A) Figure One is an equiangular three sided figure

(B) Bongiwe does well at academics

(D) He was still alive

(E) Two teenagers saw the movie “Natural Born Killers” and went out on a killing spree.

(F) Each of its angles measure 60 Degrees

(G) Research has shown that people who do at least 30 minutes a day of vigorous exercise reduce their risk of heart disease and some forms of cancer.

(H) It appeared as if his face was turning blue and his temperature was growing colder.

(I) Therefore it is a triangle

(J) The job requisites are that you have a computer literacy certificate

(K) She has passed matric with a distinction

(L) It would be wise for you to begin a daily program of exercise

(M) Light exercise also has the positive effect of getting you out, active and moving about, all beneficial to a healthier state of being.

(N) You have a degree in computer programming

(O) She most probably will be accepted to study further at a University

(P) A teenage boy who played Violent video games non-stop for a week eventually took knives and assault weapons to a public park and committed acts of violence against park visitors

(Q) There was a faint pulse.

(R) You meet the qualifications to apply for the job

ANSWERS

2.1 Premise 1: _______ Premise 2: _______ Conclusion: ____________________________________

2.2 Premise 1: _______ Premise 2: _______ Conclusion: ___________________________________

2.3 Premise 1: _______ Premise 2: _______ Conclusion: ___________________________________

2.4 Premise 1: _______ Premise 2: _______ Conclusion: ___________________________________

2.5 Premise 1: _______ Premise 2: _______ Conclusion: ___________________________________

3.1 "There's no way you'll get the job. The job ad says you need a high school diploma to apply." What premise is assumed, but not explicitly stated, in this argument?

A. The job requires a high school diploma.

B. You shouldn’t bother applying for the job.

C. You don’t have a high school diploma.

3.2 "John is a high school teacher, so he probably has a university degree." What premise is being assumed in this argument?

A. All high school teachers have a university degree.

B. Most high school teachers have a university degree.

C. Most people with university degrees are high school teachers.

4. The point of applying critical thinking to arguments is to evaluate whether the premises they offer justify or support the conclusion they've drawn and do those premises reasonably that lead to the conclusion? Consider the following arguments and decide whether the premises offered are reasonably relevant to the conclusion. Explain why you think so!

4.1 “I’m thinking of getting a part-time job during the University Recess so that I can have some cash to pay for some of my student expenses not covered by NSFAS – do you know of any work that I can do?” asked Andile. Andile’s friend Scebi argues “Oh don’t do that! You will lose all your free time, You will have to get up early, you will be too tired to hang out with us in the evenings – you will not be a fun guy to hang around anymore! Don’t get a job!

ANSWER:____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4.2 “I can’t believe that they arrested the mother of the month old Siwaphiwe Mbambo who was allegedy abducted in a Durban Hijacking case last week. We all prayed for this women’s child to be found and now it turns out that she was part of the plot. I am never looking for missing children again!”

5. Evaluate whether the following are arguments or not? If not – explain why you think so?

5.1 "They're letting that criminal go on account of a technicality in the search warrant. I think that's just awful."

5.2 “All boys are human, John is a boy therefore John is a human”

5.3 “His star sign is Cancer, Since he was born on the 13^th of July”

5.4 “The building was a shabby, dust-covered facebrick in a decaying neighbourhood. The scurrying of rats echoed in the empty halls”

6. Put your critical evaluation skills to test and evaluate whether the following is an example of a good argument or a bad argument – give a reason for your answer.

6.1 “All politicians are corrupt, crooks and liars. If you are a politician you most certainly are the scum of the earth”

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Wednesday, 15 March 2017

APHI 221 - Understanding arguments

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